Introduction

Chapter 3 of the Gospel of John recounts a conversation between Jesus and a Pharisee named Nicodemus. In this exchange, Jesus captures Nicodemus' attention with a striking statement:

“Amen, amen, I say to thee, unless a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God” (John 3:2).

At that moment, Nicodemus did not grasp what Jesus meant, as he tried to interpret His words literally. "How can a man be born when he is old?" he asked. To this, Jesus responded:

“Amen, amen, I say to thee, unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.”

For those of us who believe that Jesus is truly the Messiah, the Son of God, it is clear that His words to Nicodemus were of great significance. He was establishing a requirement for salvation, for as He Himself said, anyone who is not born again will not be able to partake in the Kingdom of God.

This, however, raises several questions:

What does it mean to be born again?

When are we born again?

Where are we born again?

How are we born again?

If we ask these questions to different Christians, the answers can vary significantly depending on their denominational background. A Catholic will not respond in the same way as a Calvinist, nor will a Calvinist answer as a Lutheran or a Baptist would.

In this brief book, I aim to explore the various interpretations of this episode, both within Catholicism and across Protestant traditions, as well as to examine how Christians have understood it throughout history, beginning with the early Church and extending through the first four centuries of Christianity.

I understand that, for many Protestants, the writings of the early Christians and Church Fathers might be regarded merely as "words of men." However, these texts still hold great value, as they reflect the understanding of those who received the Gospel directly from Christ, His apostles, or their closest successors.

I will conclude with an analysis of why I believe the answer to this question has evolved since the Protestant Reformation, following more than 1,500 years during which the whole of Christendom responded to it in a unified way.

The “New Birth” from
Various Protestant Perspectives

A comprehensive analysis of the Protestant understanding of the “new birth” is quite complex. This is largely due to the continuous fragmentation within Protestantism, which stems from its principle of free interpretation of Scripture, resulting in divisions that have grown vast and exponential. Consequently, what some Protestants see as pure and true doctrine, others regard as heresy.

Nevertheless, at the risk of oversimplifying, I will attempt to summarize Protestant views on the new birth by outlining the main lines of thought:

Lutheranism: The New Birth Occurs in Baptism

The initial Protestant doctrine, later opposed by Calvinist-leaning Protestantism and even more radically by the Anabaptist movement, teaches that the new birth occurs in baptism. Recognized as a sacrament where water serves as the material element united with the divine Word, baptism is understood as a work of God that brings about true regeneration in the believer, cleansing their sins and granting them adoption as a child of God through faith.

From this perspective, baptism is necessary for salvation, and there is often an emphasis on the need to baptize infants, making them participants in the covenant of grace.

During the Protestant Reformation, its leading figure, Martin Luther, strongly opposed any alternative understanding of the sacrament. In his Large Catechism, he referred to those who claimed that baptism was merely a symbol of the new birth as “sects”:

“Therefore, it is of the greatest importance that we value Baptism as excellent, glorious, and exalted, for which we contend and fight chiefly, because the world is now full of sects who exclaim that Baptism is merely an external thing, which nevertheless, it is not. […]

I can confidently state that Baptism is no mere human trifle, but instituted by God Himself; moreover, He has strictly commanded us to be baptized or we cannot be saved. […] This we know from the words of Christ: ‘He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved,’ but he that believeth not shall be damned. Accordingly, the work, benefits, fruits, and purpose of Baptism are to make us saved. […]

As for those who presume to know everything better than everyone else, these new spirits argue that only faith saves and that works and all external things contribute nothing to this. We respond: Certainly, faith brings salvation, as we shall still hear. […] But these blind guides refuse to see that faith must have something to believe, something on which it can depend and rest. So, faith clings to Baptism and believes it to be pure salvation and life, not through the water as such, but because it is connected with the divine Word and command and because God’s name is embedded in it. When I believe this, do I not believe in God, who has given and implanted His Word in Baptism and presents this external thing to us, so we might grasp the treasure therein? […]

They are so foolish as to separate faith from the object to which faith is attached, even if that object is external. It must necessarily be external, so that it can be grasped with the senses and thereby enter the heart, just as the entire Gospel is an external and oral proclamation. In short, God wants to work and act in us through such external means that He has instituted.”

Among the notable Protestant confessions of faith that retained this view are:

Augsburg Confession (1530)

The Augsburg Confession is a seminal document in the history of Lutheranism, drafted in 1530 by Philip Melanchthon, a close associate of Martin Luther. It was presented at the Diet of Augsburg, held in the Holy Roman Empire, before Emperor Charles V. This confession marked the first formal exposition of Lutheran principles and remains a foundational text for many Protestant churches worldwide. It is still adhered to by numerous Lutheran congregations and is included in the Book of Concord, a collection of key Lutheran doctrinal texts.

In Article II, the Augsburg Confession addresses original sin, emphasizing that human beings, due to the fall of Adam, are born in a state of sin and cannot attain salvation unless they are spiritually reborn through baptism:

“Also they teach that since the fall of Adam all men who are born according to nature are conceived and born in sin, that is, all men are full of evil lust and inclinations from their mother's womb and are unable by nature to have true fear of God and true faith in God. Moreover, this innate disease and original sin is truly sin and condemns to the eternal wrath of God all those who are not born again through Baptism and the Holy Ghost.”.

This passage underscores the Lutheran belief that original sin profoundly affects every person, making baptism essential for spiritual regeneration and salvation. Through this sacrament, a person is cleansed of sin and brought into a new, grace-filled life.

Article IX further reinforces the importance of baptism by affirming its necessity and condemning the rejection of infant baptism, a stance held by Anabaptists:

“Of Baptism they teach that it is necessary and that grace is offered through it, and that children should be baptized, who are thereby committed to God and become acceptable to Him. They condemn the Anabaptists, who reject the baptism of children, and say that children are saved without Baptism.”

This article emphasizes that baptism is not merely a symbolic act but a vital means of grace instituted by God. The practice of baptizing infants is seen as an extension of the covenant of grace, ensuring that even the youngest members of the community are brought into the fold of God's promise. By rejecting Anabaptist views, the Augsburg Confession asserts that baptism should be universally administered, regardless of age, as a necessary step for salvation.

The Scots Confession (1560)

The Scots Confession is a statement of faith written in 1560 by six proponents of the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, becoming the first standard of the Protestant church in that country. It originated when, in August 1560, the Scottish Parliament agreed to reform the nation's religion. To allow them to determine what the Reformed Faith should be, Parliament tasked John Knox and five others—John Winram, John Spottiswoode, John Willock, John Douglas, and John Row—with drafting a Confession of Faith. It was enacted into law in 1567 and remained the Confession of the Church of Scotland until it was replaced by the Westminster Confession of Faith in 1648.

Regarding baptism, this confession of faith also condemns those who deny that it truly brings about the regeneration of the believer and reduce the sacraments to a merely symbolic character:

“We acknowledge and confess that now, in the time of the Gospel, we have two chief Sacraments only, instituted by the Lord Jesus, and commanded to be used by all those that will be reputed members of his body, to wit, Baptism and the Supper or Table of the Lord Jesus, called the Communion of His Body and His Blood.

These Sacraments, as well of the Old as of the New Testament, were instituted by God, not only to make a visible difference betwixt his people and those that were without the Covenant, but also to exercise the faith of his children, and by participation of these sacraments to seal in their hearts the assurance of his promise, and of that most blessed conjunction, union, and society which the elect have with their head, Christ Jesus. And thus we utterly condemn the vanity of those who affirm that sacraments are nothing else but naked and bare signs. No, we assuredly believe that by Baptism we are ingrafted into Christ Jesus, to be made partakers of his justice, by the which our sins are covered and remitted.”

Calvinism and Anabaptism: The New Birth Does Not Occur in Baptism

Exposed to the free interpretation of the Bible, Protestant doctrine did not develop uniformly, even among the reformers themselves, which also affected their understanding of the sacraments. Unlike Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli reduced the sacraments to mere covenants among believers. John Calvin retained the traditional scholastic definition and agreed with Luther in recommending their use, but he separated the visible elements of the sacraments from the grace that only the elect could enjoy. From his perspective, baptism did not confer spiritual graces; rather, it was a symbol that was not effective in relation to its meaning.

It is within this context that other Protestant confessions of faith emerged. Below, I mention some of the most important:

Westminster Confession (1646)

The Westminster Confession of Faith is a theological and doctrinal summary of the Calvinist Protestant creed, promulgated in 1646. It encapsulates the doctrine of the Reformed Protestant churches that emerged from the Calvinist movement in Britain, with historical roots in the teachings of the Protestant reformer John Calvin during the 16th century in Geneva, Switzerland.

It was initially crafted for the Church of England, but it also remains a subordinate doctrinal standard for the Church of Scotland and has influenced Presbyterian churches worldwide. The Westminster Confession continues to this day as the authoritative statement of faith for the majority of Presbyterian churches.

Although it identifies baptism as a sacrament, it understands it only as a symbol or sign of the new birth:

“Baptism is a sacrament of the New Testament, ordained by Jesus Christ, not only for the solemn admission of the party baptized into the visible Church, but also to be unto him a sign and seal of the covenant of grace, of his ingrafting into Christ, of regeneration, of remission of sins, and of his giving up unto God, through Jesus Christ, to walk in newness of life. Which sacrament is, by Christ's own appointment, to be continued in His Church until the end of the world.”

It accepts as valid baptism by immersion, pouring, or sprinkling, as long as it is performed in the name of the Holy Trinity and water is used as the material element:

“The outward element to be used in this sacrament is water, wherewith the party is to be baptized, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, by a minister of the Gospel, lawfully called thereunto.

Dipping of the person into the water is not necessary; but baptism is rightly administered by pouring or sprinkling water upon the person.”

It also accepts infant baptism and rejects re-baptizing a person more than once, a practice followed by the Anabaptists:

“Not only those that do actually profess faith in and obedience unto Christ, but also the infants of one, or both, believing parents, are to be baptized.

Although it be a great sin to contemn or neglect this ordinance, yet grace and salvation are not so inseparably annexed unto it, as that no person can be regenerated or saved without it; or that all that are baptized are undoubtedly regenerated.

… The sacrament of Baptism is but once to be administered to any person.”

Following the Westminster Confession, other derivative Protestant confessions of faith remained in the same vein, such as the Savoy Declaration of 1658.

London Baptist Confession of Faith (1689)

Many Protestants, including Baptists who were not satisfied with the Westminster Confession and the Savoy Declaration, drafted their own confession of faith in 1677, later modifying it to produce the 1689 version, which is still used by many congregations around the world today.

In this confession of faith, a more clearly transformative evolution of the Protestant understanding of baptism can be observed. Baptism is no longer even recognized as a sacrament but is reduced to the category of an ordinance. From this perspective, the believer is not regenerated (born again) in baptism, nor does it confer the remission of sins; rather, it is merely a sign of the new birth. It adopts the Anabaptist rejection of infant baptism and the forms of baptism by pouring and sprinkling, recognizing only baptism by immersion as valid:

“Baptism is an ordinance of the New Testament, ordained by Jesus Christ, to be unto the party baptized a sign of his fellowship with Him, in His death and resurrection; of his being engrafted into Him; of remission of sins; and of his giving up unto God, through Jesus Christ, to live and walk in newness of life.

Those who do actually profess repentance towards God, faith in, and obedience to our Lord Jesus Christ, are the only proper subjects of this ordinance.

The outward element to be used in this ordinance is water, wherein the party is to be baptized, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.

Immersion of the person in water is necessary for the due administration of this ordinance.”

The Path to Extreme Calvinism

In this way, Protestant doctrine on the sacraments and baptism gradually shifted, leading to positions that, in some cases, became irreconcilable. The first element in understanding this evolution is, perhaps, the doctrine of the reformer Martin Luther on salvation by faith alone. When taken to its ultimate consequences, this belief has led to contradictory conclusions.

The issue arises because if, as Luther thought, only fiduciary faith is necessary for salvation, it made sense for other Protestants to conclude that the sacraments were not truly essential and should be reduced to mere pedagogical symbols. For this reason, they assume that when Jesus told Nicodemus that one must be born again to see the Kingdom of Heaven, He could not have been referring to baptism, but rather was speaking only of believing in Him. Therefore, in answering this question, instead of seeking the response in the immediate context, they looked to other biblical texts such as: “For if thou confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in thy heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved.” (Romans 10:9), or “He that believeth in the Son hath everlasting life.” (John 3:36; 6:47). These texts do not speak of being born again but rather of faith as necessary for salvation.

The syllogism follows this reasoning: if being born again is necessary for salvation, and Jesus speaks of salvation through faith in Him, then it is at the moment of faith that one is born again. From this perspective, the new birth and faith occur simultaneously. At the moment a person believes in the Lord Jesus Christ, they are regenerated (born again). When they receive Christ by faith, they also receive the gift of eternal life.

However, there was another fundamental aspect of Lutheran and Calvinist doctrine that led some Protestants to reject even this position: the concept of total depravity. This doctrine teaches that, due to original sin, human free will has been utterly destroyed, leaving man spiritually dead and thus incapable of believing in Christ. In this view, God, in a sovereign act, brings spiritual life to the spiritually dead, which they identify as the new birth. In this act, the sinner is entirely passive; God actively works in their heart, changing their nature and enabling them to perceive the things of the Spirit. The new birth produces faith, not the other way around.

This is where Calvinism arrives at one of its most controversial points: double predestination, wherein God, by an absolute and antecedent decree, has destined some to be saved, and He regenerates them by granting them the new birth, while predestining the rest to eternal condemnation.

From this perspective, Jesus Christ died only for the elect, and He desires that only they be saved. Meanwhile, the rest, no matter how much they seek God or live religiously, will never be able to be born again, nor is there anything they can do to achieve it. If someone has faith, it is because they have been regenerated by God’s grace. If they do not have faith, they can only wait and hope that God regenerates them, if they are among the predestined; only from that moment on will they have faith.

The “New Birth” from
the Catholic Perspective

Let us return to the conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus, but this time, without the lens of Protestantism.

In the introduction to this work, it was noted that Jesus, as He often did, began by using a metaphor that cannot be taken literally, thus piquing Nicodemus's interest:

“Amen, amen, I say to thee, unless a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God.” (John 3:3)

Nicodemus responds in a way that Jesus likely anticipated: “How can a man be born when he is old? Can he enter a second time into his mother's womb, and be born?” This is a natural question, as Nicodemus seeks clarification on what Jesus meant. Jesus then replies:

“Amen, amen, I say to thee, unless a man be born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.” (John 3:5)

Everything seems to indicate that whatever Jesus meant by “being born again” must be understood in the context of “being born of water and the Spirit.” It would not have made sense for Jesus to clarify one enigma with another or to explain a symbolic phrase with another equally symbolic one.

Throughout the Gospel, it is common to see Jesus using the same pedagogical method to explain a hidden teaching, often clarifying it to His disciples if they did not understand (see, for example, John 4:32-34 or Matthew 16:6-12). Therefore, it should not have been difficult, at least for His disciples, to understand what He meant by “being born of water and the Spirit” after His explanation.

Another element present in the context of this discourse, which sheds much light on its meaning, is the sequence recorded by the evangelist of how events unfolded. Jesus begins His discourse by speaking of the need to be “born of water and the Spirit,” and immediately afterward, He is shown baptizing with His disciples:

“When Jesus therefore understood that the Pharisees had heard that Jesus maketh more disciples and baptizeth more than John, (Though Jesus himself did not baptize, but his disciples)” (John 4:1-2)

This sequence would make perfect sense if the mention of the need to be born of water and the Spirit was a reference to Christian baptism, where water is the material element, and the regeneration and reception of the Holy Spirit is the spiritual element. After all, if baptism was necessary to enter the Kingdom of Heaven, it would be the first thing that Jesus would logically do and command His disciples to do for new believers.

This has been the Catholic understanding of this discourse throughout the centuries, confirmed by other passages in Sacred Scripture where it is evident that the apostles themselves interpreted Jesus's words in this way.

An example can be found in the first great apostolic preaching, where more than 3,000 people converted. When the new converts ask what they must do to be saved, the Apostle Peter responds:

“But Peter said to them: Do penance, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ, for the remission of your sins: and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost. For the promise is to you and to your children and to all that are far off, even as many as the Lord our God shall call.” (Acts 2:38-39)

A similar instance occurs with the Apostle Paul, who, at the moment of his conversion, is urged by Ananias to wash away his sins through baptism:

“And now why tarriest thou? Rise up, and be baptized, and wash away thy sins, invoking his name.” (Acts 22:16)

And in the future, it would be the same apostle who would explicitly explain that it is through baptism that a Christian is born to a new life:

“Know you not that all we who are baptized in Christ Jesus are baptized in his death? For we are buried together with him by baptism into death: that as Christ is risen from the dead by the glory of the Father, so we also may walk in newness of life.” (Romans 6:3-4)

“For as many of you as have been baptized in Christ, have put on Christ.” (Galatians 3:27)

“For in one Spirit were we all baptized into one body, whether Jews or Gentiles, whether bond or free; and in one Spirit we have all been made to drink.” (1 Corinthians 12:13)

“Buried with him in baptism, in whom also you are risen again by the faith of the operation of God, who hath raised him up from the dead.” (Colossians 2:12)

“He saved us, not by the works of justice which we have done, but according to his mercy, by the laver of regeneration, and renovation of the Holy Ghost.” (Titus 3:5)

The final solemn instructions of Jesus Christ to His apostles before ascending to heaven included the command to baptize believers:

“Going therefore, teach ye all nations; baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” (Matthew 28:19)

“He that believeth and is baptized, shall be saved: but he that believeth not, shall be condemned.” (Mark 16:16)

If Jesus was referring to baptism as a requirement for being “born of water and the Spirit,” it is understandable why, in every conversion recorded in the Bible, the first thing new converts did was seek baptism. Among the examples found in the New Testament are the Philippian jailer, Crispus, the synagogue leader, Lydia, a seller of purple, and the Ethiopian eunuch:

“But they said: Believe in the Lord Jesus, and thou shalt be saved, and thy house. And they preached the word of the Lord to him and to all that were in his house. And he, taking them the same hour of the night, washed their stripes, and was baptized, he and all his house immediately.” (Acts 16:31-33)

“And Crispus, the ruler of the synagogue, believed in the Lord, with all his house: and many of the Corinthians hearing, believed and were baptized.” (Acts 18:8)

“And a certain woman named Lydia, a seller of purple, of the city of Thyatira, one that worshipped God, did hear: whose heart the Lord opened to attend to those things which were said by Paul. And when she was baptized, and her household, she besought us, saying: If you have judged me to be faithful to the Lord, come into my house, and abide there. And she constrained us.” (Acts 16:14-15)

“Then Philip, opening his mouth, and beginning at this scripture, preached unto him Jesus. And as they went on their way, they came to a certain water: and the eunuch said: See, here is water, what doth hinder me from being baptized? And Philip said: If thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayest. And he answering, said: I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God. And he commanded the chariot to stand still: and they both went down into the water, both Philip and the eunuch, and he baptized him.” (Acts 8:35-38)

In the conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus, what is found is a preparatory teaching for understanding the sacrament as a visible sign instituted by Him to impart His grace. Baptism is not a magical rite that, by merely immersing someone in water, produces new birth. In all cases, baptism is always linked to faith and the Word of God, whether in the case of an adult convert or children who are baptized by virtue of the faith of their parents.

However, from the Catholic perspective, when numerous biblical texts refer to the necessity of faith for salvation, they do not teach that faith alone suffices, or that the new birth occurs merely at the moment of belief. Rather, they imply that faith, as a free gift from God, is the first salutary act of man necessary for his salvation.

The Catechism teaches on this point:

“Faith is a gift of God, a supernatural virtue infused by him. Before this faith can be exercised, man must have the grace of God to move and assist him; he must have the interior helps of the Holy Spirit, who moves the heart and converts it to God, who opens the eyes of the mind and makes it easy for all to accept and believe the truth” (Catechism 153).

It also explains:

“‘No one can say “Jesus is Lord” except by the Holy Spirit’ (1 Corinthians 12:3). ‘God has sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, crying, “Abba! Father!”’ (Galatians 4:6). This knowledge of faith is possible only in the Holy Spirit. To be in touch with Christ, we must first have been touched by the Holy Spirit. He comes to meet us and kindles faith in us” (Catechism 683).

“In faith, the human intellect and will cooperate with divine grace: ‘Believing is an act of the intellect assenting to the divine truth by command of the will moved by God through grace’” (St. Thomas Aquinas, S. Th. II-II, 2, 9; cf. Vatican Council I: DS 3010; Catechism 155).

It must be added that faith does not exclude but presupposes the use of the means God Himself has instituted for our salvation (the sacraments), the first of which is baptism, the gateway to the spiritual life.

“Baptism gives us the grace of new birth in God the Father through his Son, in the Holy Spirit. For those who bear God's Spirit are led to the Word, that is, to the Son, and the Son presents them to the Father, and the Father confers incorruptibility on them. And it is impossible to see God's Son without the Spirit, and no one can approach the Father without the Son, for the knowledge of the Father is the Son, and the knowledge of the Son of God is obtained through the Holy Spirit”.

“Holy Baptism is the basis of the whole Christian life, the gateway to life in the Spirit (vitae spiritualis ianua), and the door which gives access to the other sacraments. Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission: Baptism is the sacrament of regeneration through water in the word.”.

Catholic doctrine also teaches that Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the opportunity to request this sacrament. It also acknowledges the existence of Baptism of blood and Baptism of desire:

“Lord himself affirms that Baptism is necessary for salvation. He also commands his disciples to proclaim the Gospel to all nations and to baptize them. Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament. The Church does not know of any means other than Baptism that assures entry into eternal beatitude; this is why she takes care not to neglect the mission she has received from the Lord to see that all who can be baptized are “reborn of water and the Spirit.” God has bound salvation to the sacrament of Baptism, but he himself is not bound by his sacraments.

The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This Baptism of blood, like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament.

For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament.

“Since Christ died for all, and since all men are in fact called to one and the same destiny, which is divine, we must hold that the Holy Spirit offers to all the possibility of being made partakers, in a way known to God, of the Paschal mystery.” Every man who is ignorant of the Gospel of Christ and of his Church, but seeks the truth and does the will of God in accordance with his understanding of it, can be saved. It may be supposed that such persons would have desired Baptism explicitly if they had known its necessity.

As regards children who have died without Baptism, the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God, as she does in her funeral rites for them. Indeed, the great mercy of God who desires that all men should be saved, and Jesus' tenderness toward children which caused him to say: "Let the children come to me, do not hinder them," allow us to hope that there is a way of salvation for children who have died without Baptism. All the more urgent is the Church's call not to prevent little children coming to Christ through the gift of holy Baptism.”